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Publications and Links

The following lists of publications and links are presented for your information. We have been diligent to make sure the links work, but links are always changing and if you find a link that doesn't work, please email the webmaster.

Some of the publications below are in pdf format. If you don't own Adobe Acrobat, you can download a free copy.

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Publications

• Air Resource Specialists, Inc. 1996. Carbon Monoxide and Particulate Matter Levels at Yellowstone National Park, West Entrance Station: Results of an Ambient Air Quality Study, Winter 1995.
• American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1994. Liquid Fuels, Lubricants and Additives from Biomass. 200 pages. ISBN: 0-929355-49-0.
• Aune, K.E. 1981. Impacts of Winter Recreationists on Wildlife in a Portion of Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. M.S. thesis. Montana State University School of Forestry, Bozeman, Montana and University of Vermont, Montpelier, Vermont.
• Bishop, Gary A; Morris, J.A.,; Stedham, D.H. June 2001. Snowmobile Contributions to Mobile Source Emissions in Yellowstone National Park. University of Denver Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Denver, Colorado.
• Bishop, G. A.; Stedman, D. H. 1999. 1998 Preliminary Snowmobile Emission Survey in Yellowstone National Park: Final Report. National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.
• Bishop, G. A.; Stedman, D. H.; Hektner, M.; Ray, J.D. 1999. An In-Use Snowmobile Emission Survey in Yellowstone National Park. Environmental Science & Technology 33: pp. 3924-3926. 
• Blair, Gordon P. Design and Simulation of Two-Stroke Engines. 1996. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Borrie, W., et al. 1999. Winter Visit and Visitor Characteristics of Yellowstone National Park: Final Report 1999. University of Montana School of Forestry, Missoula, Montana.
• Bowlby & Associates. 1996. 1996 Noise Monitoring Study, Grand Teton National Park and John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway, Wyoming. Prepared for the National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.
• Bowlby & Associates. 1995. 1995 Noise Monitoring Study, Grand Teton National Park and John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway, Wyoming. Prepared for the National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.
• Bowlby & Associates. 1994. Grand Teton National Park Vehicle and Noise Snowmobile Assessment. Prepared for the National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.
• Cain, Cyra J.; Coefield, John. December 1999. Preliminary Air Dispersion Modeling Analysis of Yellowstone National Park West Entrance: Wintertime Carbon Monoxide Emissions. Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Helena, Montana. (78k pdf file)
• Cain, Cyra J. and Haines, Howard, 2001. Comparison of Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Snowcoaches, 1997 and 2001 Snowmobiles, and 2001 Clean Snowmobile Challenge New Technology Applications. Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Helena, Montana. (87k pdf file)
• Carroll, James N., White, Jeff J., Khalek, Imad A., Kado, Norman. June 1999. Characterization of Snowmobile Particulate Emissions. Yellowstone Park Foundation, Bozeman, MT (26 pages, 485k pdf file).
• Coefield, John. May 2002. Carbon Monoxide Monitoring in West Yellowstone, Montana 1998-2001. Montana Department of Environmental Quality. Helena, Montana.
• Daily, John., Jackson Hole Scientific Investigations, Inc., Box 2206, Jackson, WY 83001. September 2001. Over-Snow Vehicle Sound Level Measurements. State of Wyoming, Department of State Parks and Cultural Resources. Cheyenne, Wyoming.
• Duffield, J. W.; Neher, C. J. September 1999. Winter 1998-99 Visitor Survey Yellowstone National Park, Grand Teton National Park and the Greater Yellowstone Area: Analysis and Results. Bioeconomics, Inc. Missoula, Montana. 23 pages.
• Fussell, Lori Marie Snook. July 1997. Carbon Monoxide Exposure by Snowmobile Riders: Emissions Pose Potential Risk. Park Science Vol. 17 No. 1.
• Fussell, Lori M.; Bishop, Gary; Daily, John. September 2000. The SAE Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2000 – Summary and Results. Society of Automotive Engineers. 42 pages.
• Fussell, Lori M. August 2001. The Society of Automotive Engineers Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2001 Final Report, Institute of Science, Ecology, and the Environment, August 2001. (118 pages, 2.9MB pdf file).
• Fussell, Lori M. July 2002. The Society of Automotive Engineers Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2002 Final Report. Institute of Science, Ecology, and Environment and Montana Department of Environmental Quality. Helena, Montana. 83 pages including appendix.
• Hagemann, M.; Van Mouwerik. 1999. Potential Water Quality Concerns Related to Snowmobile Usage. Internal memo, National Park Service, Water Resources Division.
• Hagemann, M.; Van Mouwerik. 1999. Water Quality Concerns Related to Personal Watercraft Usage, National Park Service, Water Resources Division.
• Haines, Howard. October 2000. Health & Air Quality Impacts of Bio-Based Fuels & Lubes in Small Engines (PowerPoint show).
• Haines, Howard. Lab Results Show Ethanol Blends Reduce Snowmobile Emissions. Montana Department of Environmental Quality. (24k html file)
• Haines, Howard. 1999. The Snowmobile Dilemma, or, Who Spilled What in the Refrigerator vs. Who's Going to Clean It Up? Montana Department of Environmental Quality. (24k html file)
• Haines, Howard. 1995. Snowmobiles in Yellowstone: Biomass Alternatives to Reduce Pollution. Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Helena, Montana. (68k pdf file)
• Hare, Charles T.; Carroll, James N. December 1993. Reactivity of Exhaust Emissions from a Small Two-Stroke Engine and a Small Four-Stroke Engine Operating on Gasoline and LPG. SAE 931540. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Hare, Charles T.; Springer, Karl J. September 1974. Snowmobile Engine Emissions and Their Impact. SAE 740735. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Hare, Charles T.; White, Jeff J. October 1991. Toward the Environmentally-Friendly Small Engine: Fuel, Lubricant and Emission Measurement Issues. SAE 911222. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Heywood, John B.; Sher, Eran. 1999. The Two-Stroke Cycle Engine. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA., ISBN: 0768003237
• Hein, Aaron et al. September 2000. 1998 Polaris Indy Trail: An Entry by Minnesota State University, Mankato in the Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2000. SAE 2000-01-2574. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY. Included with permission.
• Hue, Scott et al. September 2000. Modifications to a 1998 Indy Trail to Compete in the Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2000. SAE 2000-01-2554. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY. Included with permission.
• Ingersoll, G.; Turk, J.; McClure, C.; Lawlor, S.; Clow, D.; Mast, A. 1997. Snowpack Chemistry as an Indicator of Pollutant Emission Levels from Motorized Winter Vehicles in Yellowstone National Park. [Abstract only]  [Download full report]
• Ingersoll, George. 1999. Effects of Snowmobile Use on Snowpack Chemistry in Yellowstone National Park, 1998. full report, 11M pdf file). Water Resources Investigations Report 99-4148. U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.
• Ingersoll, George. 1997-2003. Effects of Snowmobile Use on Snowpack Chemistry in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado.
• Irwin, R.J.; Van Mouwerik, M.; Stevens, L.; Seese, M.D.; Basham, W. 1998. Environmental Contaminants Encyclopedia. National Park Service, Water Resources Division, Ft. Collins, Colorado.
• Kado, N.Y.; Kuzmicky, P.A.; Okamoto, R. A. July 1999. Measurement of Toxic Air Pollutants Emitted from Snowmobiles at Yellowstone National Park. Interim Final Report prepared for the Yellowstone Park Foundation, Inc. Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis. By Kado, et. Al. December 2001 below.
• Kado, N.Y.; Kuzmicky, P. A.; Okamoto, R. A.; Haines, H. E.; Sacklin, J and Hektner, M. December 2001. Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Toxic Air Pollutants from Winter Snowmobile Use in Yellowstone National Park. Final Report prepared for the Yellowstone Park foundation, Inc., the Pew Charitable Trusts, National Park Service, Montana Department of Environmental Quality, California Air Resource Board by the Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis. Appendices 2, standard curves, and 3, GC/MS identification of select vapor compounds at West Yellowstone are hard copy only and can be obtained by contacting the Montana DEQ at (406) 444-6697. (506k zip file)
• Lela, Chad; White, Jeff J.; Haines, Howard; and Sacklin, John. July 2002. Laboratory Testing of Snowmobile Emissions: Southwest Research Institute, Report number SwRI 08.05486. Montana Department of Environmental Quality. Helena, Montana, and National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. This includes testing of commercially available 4-stroke snowmobiles. (3,189k zip file)
• Mantell, Michael A.; Metzger, Philip C. 1990. The Organic Act and the Stewardship of Resources within Park Boundaries. Chapter 2 in Managing the National Park System: A Handbook on Legal Duties, Opportunities, and Tools. The Conservation Foundation, Baltimore, Maryland.
• Miers, Scott et al. September 2000. Noise and Emission Reduction Strategies for a Snowmobile. SAE 2000-01-2573. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY. Included with permission.
• Miller, Emily. May 2001. Status and Potential of Two-Stroke Engine Technology in Montana. Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Helena, Montana.
• Mills, Andrew et al. September 2000. Reduced Emissions/Reduced Noise Snowmobile. SAE 2000-01-2553. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY. Included with permission.
• Montana Department of Environmental Quality. October 1998 - present. Continuous Carbon Monoxide Monitoring at West Entrance, Yellowstone National Park.
• Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Pollution Prevention Bureau. March 1998. How to Make Your Snow Machine Environmentally Friendly. Helena, Montana. (241k pdf file)
• Montana Department of Environmental Quality. Biomass Alternatives for Snowmobiles: Emissions Testing and Demonstration of Bio-based Options for Emissions Reduction in 2-Stroke Snowmobile Engines in Yellowstone National Park.
• Morris, Jerome A.; Bishop, Gary A.; Stedman, Donald H. August, 1999. Real-time Remote Sensing of Snowmobiles Emissions at Yellowstone National Park: An Oxygenated Fuel Study, 1999. Western Regional Biomass Energy Program, University of Denver. (42 pages, 972k pdf file)
• Morrison, B.D. et al. September 2000. Reduction in Emissions and Noise from a 500cc Snowmobile. SAE 00F95. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Nanus, Leona, Donald H. Campbell, and Mark W. Williams. Sensitivity of Alpine and Subalpine Lakes to Acidification from Atmospheric Deposition in Grand Teton National Park and Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 2005. U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO 80225, USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5023.
• National Park Service. June 1, 1999 letter from Superintendent Michael Finley to U.S. EPA Public Docket A-98-01. 11 pages.
• National Park Service. October 2000. Winter Use Plans: Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks and John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway. (523 pages, pdf file)
• National Park Service Air Resources Division. February 2000. Air Quality Concerns Related to Snowmobile Usage in National Parks. (34 pages, 282k pdf file)
• National Park Service, Air Resources Division. December 1995. Motor Vehicle Emissions at Park Entrances - Snowmobile Use in Yellowstone National Park, Draft Final Report. Denver, Colorado.
• National Park Service. January 22, 2001. 36 CFR Part 7: Special Regulations, Areas of the National Park System: Final Rule. Federal Register Vol. 66, No. 14. Washington, D.C.
• National Park Service Mount Rainier National Park
  Draft Environmental Assessment for Snowmobile Rulemaking in Mount Rainier National Park, December 2000. (1174k pdf file)
• National Park Service, Mount Rainier National Park Management Documents
• National Park Service.  December 2000. Draft Environmental Assessment for the Management of Snowmobiles in Rocky Mountain National Park.
• National Park Service. 1995. Ambient Air Quality Study Results, Winter 1995-Summary, West Entrance Station, Yellowstone National Park.
• National Park Service. 1996. Carbon Monoxide Monitoring, Winter 1996-Draft, West Entrance and West Entrance Road, Yellowstone National Park.
• National Park Service, August 2000. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Interagency Bison Management Plan for the State of Montana and Yellowstone National Park.
• National Park Service, October 2002. Final Carbon Monoxide and Particulate Matter Air Quality Modeling, Particulate Matter Prevention of Significant Deterioration Increment Analysis; Winter Season Mobile Emissions Estimates of Criteria and Toxic Pollutants; and Visibility Modeling for the Winter Use Plan Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for Yellowstone National and Grand Teton National Parks and the John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway. National Park Service. Lakewood, Colorado.
• Nuti, M.P. 1998. Emissions from Two-Stroke Engines. SAE Publication. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA.
• Olliff, T., K. Legg, and B. Kaeding, editors. 1999. Effects of Winter Recreation on Wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Area: a Literature Review and Assessment. Report to the Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. (315 pages, 1582k pdf file)
• Pape, Bruce, David Shively, Department of Geography, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, Pamela Lutz, Isreal O'Boyle, Department of Chemistry, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, Barkley Sive, Zhou Youg, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire. September 2002. Yellowstone National Park Wintertime Air Pollution, Putting it into Perspective. Presented at the Eighth Yellowstone Interagency Science Conference, September 11, 2002, Mammoth Hot Springs, Mammoth, Wyoming. Contact authors for print version.
• Patschull, J, Roth, P. 1994. Measurement and Reduction of Particles Emitted from a Two-Stroke Engine. SAE 941683. Society of Automotive Engineers International, New York NY.
• Radtke, T. 1997. Industrial Hygiene Consultation Report. Report No. 970101. U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Managing Risk and Public Safety, Lakewood, Colorado.
• Ruzycki, Jim and Lutch, Jeff 1999. Impacts of Two-Stroke Engines on Aquatic Resources. In Olliff, T., K. Legg, and B. Kaeding, editors, Effects of Winter Recreation on Wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Area: a Literature Review and Assessment, pp. 145-149.
• Seers, P. September 2000. Research and Development of the Ecole de Technologie Superiure, Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2000 Entry. SAE 00F-96. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Shively, David. Department of Geography, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan. September 2002. Spatial Variation of Volatile Organic Compounds associated with Snowmobile Emissions in Yellowstone National Park. Presented at the Eighth Yellowstone Interagency Science Conference, September 11, 2002, Mammoth Hot Springs, Mammoth, Wyoming. Contact authors for print version.
• Sive, Barkley, Youg, Zhou. Department of Chemistry, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan relocated to the Institute for Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hamphire, Pamela Lutz, Isreal O'Boyle, Department of Chemistry, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan, Bruce Pape, David Shively, Department of Geography, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan. September 2002. Nonmethane Hydrocarbon and Halocarbon Measurements in Yellowstone National Park: Impact of Snowmobile Emissions on Local Atmospheric Chemistry. Presented at the EighthYellowstone Interagency Science Conference, September 11, 2002, Mammoth Hot Springs, Mammoth, Wyoming. Contact authors for print version.
• Snook, L. M. and Davis, W. T. 1997. An Investigation of Driver Exposure to Carbon Monoxide While Travelling in the Wake of a Snowmobile. Air and Waste Management Association, 90th Annual Meeting, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
• Society of Automotive Engineers. March 1985. Exterior Sound Level for Snowmobiles – Recommended Practice. SAE J192. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.
• Sylvester, James, Nesary, Marlene. October 1994. Snowmobiling in Montana. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University of Montana. Missoula, Montana.
• Sylvester, James T. 1996. Off Highway Vehicle Recreation in Southwest Montana. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University of Montana.
• Sylvester, James, T. October 1998. Snowmobiling in Montana: A 1998 Update. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University of Montana. Missoula, Montana. (6 pages, 41k pdf file)
• Taylor, David T. May 1999. Economic Importance of the Winter Season to Park County, Wyoming. University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service. Laramie, Wyoming. (12 pages, 87k pdf file)
• Tyler, B., Peterson, R., and Nair, Amit; Department of Chemical and Fuels Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. September 2002. Sampling and Analysis of Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds and Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Snow Collected at West Yellowstone. Presented at the Eighth Yellowstone Interagency Science Conference, September 11, 2002, Mammoth Hot Springs, Mammoth, Wyoming. Contact authors for print version.
• Tyler, B., Peterson, R. 2000. Field Studies of Aerosol Formation and Biodegradation of Snowmobile Fuels, Lubricants, and Emissions in the Yellowstone Region. Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana. (30k pdf file)
• Tyler, B., Peterson, R. 1999. Field Studies of Aerosol Formation and Biodegradation of Snowmobile Fuels, Lubricants, and Emissions in the Yellowstone Region. Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana. (6k pdf file)
• U.S. Department of Energy. Sustaining National Parks-A Smart Niche Market. Alternative Fuel News, Volume 3, Number 1. (30k html file)
• U. S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Billings Office. July 2000. Industrial Hygiene Survey of Park Employee Exposures During Winter Use at Yellowstone National Park: February 19 through February 24, 2000. OSHA, Billings, Montana.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development. 2000. Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide. National Center for Environmental Assessment. Washington, DC. (7k html file)
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants. Air Risk Information Center. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. (22k html file)
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. Air Toxics from Motor Vehicles. EPA 400-F-92-004. U.S. EPA Office of Mobile Sources. Ann Arbor, MI.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Exhaust Emission Factors for Nonroad Engine Modeling – Spark Ignition. EPA 420-R-99-009.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Mobile Sources. Nonroad Spark-Ignition Engines. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Regulatory Announcement: Proposed Finding on Emissions Standards for New Large Spark-Ignition Nonroad Engines. EPA 420-F-99-004.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Mobile Sources. Regulatory Update: EPA's Nonroad Engine Emissions Control Programs. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
• Ugorowski, J. 1999. Comments Presented May 10, 1999. Montana Department of Environmental Quality.
• White, Jeff J.; Carroll, James N.; Haines, Howard. October 1998. Emissions From Snowmobile Engines Using Bio-based Fuels And Lubricants. Southwest Research Institute, Report number SwRI 7383. Montana Department of Environmental Quality. (1,226 k pdf file. Please contact DEQ for a hard copy of the appendices.)
• White, Jeff J.; Carroll, James N.; Haines, Howard. October 1997. Emissions From Snowmobile Engines Using Bio-based Fuels And Lubricants. Southwest Research Institute, draft text of paper for Society of Automotive Engineers SAE972188 Small Engine Technology Conference. For final published paper, please contact SAE.
• White, Jeff J. August 2001. Emission Testing for the 2001 Clean Snowmobile Challenge, Appendix B of The Society of Automotive Engineers Clean Snowmobile Challenge 2001 Final Report, Institute of Science, Ecology, and the Environment, August 2001. (118 pages, 1234k pdf file).
• Wilkinson, Todd. 1995. Snowed Under – the Roar of Snowmobile. National Parks Volume 69. Washington, DC. 13 pages.
• Williford, John. April 30, 2001. Status and Prospects for Two-Stroke Engines Used in Off-Road Recreational Vehicles. Montana Department of Environmental Quality, Helena, Montana.
• Willson, Bryan; Mick, Justin; Mick, Stephanie. September 2000. Development of an Externally-Scavenged Direct-Injected Two-Stroke Cycle Engine. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY. Included with permission.
• Wright, Christopher W.; White, Jeff J. September 1998. Development and Validation of a Snowmobile Engine Emission Test Procedure. SAE Technical Paper Series 982017. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, NY.

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  Organizations

• Alternative Fuel and Engine Research, West Virginia University
• The Canadian Council of Snowmobile Organizations
• Fuel Efficiency Automobile Test Data Center (FEAT)
• The Health Effects Institute (HEI) is an independent, nonprofit corporation chartered in 1980 to provide high-quality, impartial, and relevant science on the health effects of pollutants from motor vehicles and from other sources in the environment. Supported jointly by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and industry, HEI has funded over 170 studies and published over 100 Research Reports, and several Special Reports, producing important research findings on the health effects of a variety of pollutants, including carbon monoxide, methanol and aldehydes, nitrogen oxides, diesel exhaust, ozone, and most recently, particulate air pollution. Along with EPA, HEI operates and maintains the searchable Particulate Matter Research Activities website
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
• Southwest Research Institute (SwRI)
• Tread Lightly

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  Companies

• Arctic Cat
• Polaris
• Ski-Doo
• Yamaha Motor Corp.

  Innovative Technology Manufacturing Companies

• Dynojet Research
• Orbital Engine Corporation Ltd.
• Redline Snowmobiles
• Smart Plug
• Three R Industries

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  Other Useful Links

• Montana Official Travel Site: State travel and tourism website
• Maximum Sled.com: an online snowmobile magazine
• Montana Snowmobile Association
• SnowRider Magazine: The Online Magazine for Snowmobilers
• Personal Watercraft Industry Association
• Peaks to Prairies includes links and information about snowmobile-related issues and is the EPA Region 8 link to a national network, the Pollution Prevention Resource Exchange. Region 8 includes the states of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming.
• Statement of Kevin Collins, Legislative Liaison for the National Parks Conservation Association on Snowmobiles in National Parks, July 13, 2000.

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